Author Archives: Dr. Preeti

Body, Soul, Spirit: Simply Explained

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I am a spirit, who has a soul, that lives in a body. You are a spirit, who has a soul, that lives in a body.

 

Now may the God of peace make you holy in every way, and may your whole spirit and soul and body be kept blameless until our Lord Jesus Christ comes again (1 Thessalonians 5:23, NLT)

BODY

Your body is your “earth suit.” Your body is your connection with this world. Your body is the vehicle through which you experience the natural realm. Every single interaction that you share with others is through your body. With the body, you speak and communicate. With your physical being, you see, hear, and touch the world around you. Contrary to what some religious ideologies have led us to believe, the body itself is not a sinful, corrupt thing. Sure, the body is decaying and dying. And, yes, your physical body can be trained to become an instrument of the sin nature, but that doesn’t mean that your body is itself sinful. Your body can be used for either sin or holiness. The choice is yours. In fact, your body can be a carrier of the glory of God.

Don’t you realize that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit, who lives in you and was given to you by God? You do not belong to yourself (1 Corinthians 6:19, NLT) 

Your body can be a holy host of the Holy Spirit’s presence. You can be the Holy Spirit’s physical connection with this world.

SOUL

The soul is the realm of decision. In the soul lives your mind, will, emotions, and personality. Your mind—what you imagine. Your will—what you want. Your emotions—what you feel. The soul is the neutral ground between the body and the spirit. It is the place where free will is exercised.

The soul is eternal, and everyone has a soul—redeemed and unredeemed alike. The wicked have souls.

The soul of the wicked desireth evil: his neighbour findeth no favour in his eyes (Proverbs 21:10, KJV). 

The godly have souls.

Beloved, I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health, even as thy soul prospereth (3 John 1:2, KJV).

Every human being has a soul.

In whose hand is the soul of every living thing, and the breath of all mankind (Job 12:10, KJV). 

The breath of life is in the soul. The soul gives animation, consciousness. The soul is where your free will is exercised.

SPIRIT

Your spirit is your connection with God. It is the innermost part of your being, the center of you, the source of your identity. Your spirit is the deepest part of you, and your spirit knows perfect fellowship with God.

But it was to us that God revealed these things by his Spirit. For his Spirit searches out everything and shows us God’s deep secrets. No one can know a person’s thoughts except that person’s own spirit, and no one can know God’s thoughts except God’s own Spirit. And we have received God’s Spirit (not the world’s spirit), so we can know the wonderful things God has freely given us (1 Corinthians 2:10-12, NLT)

No one knows your thoughts like your spirit does. The same is true of God. The Holy Spirit knows God’s thoughts. The Holy Spirit, who is God’s Spirit, searches out the deep things of God. The Holy Spirit knows God’s secrets, intentions, and desires. The Holy Spirit knows God’s will. The Holy Spirit perfectly and completely understands God’s nature and power. Everything there is to know about our infinitely intricate God, the Holy Spirit knows. The Holy Spirit is not learning about God. The Holy Spirit knows God. He knows Himself fully.

The Holy Spirit communicates what He knows of God with your spirit. God’s Spirit shares revelations with your spirit. God’s innermost Being shares mysteries with your innermost being. In that place of inner oneness, divine secrets are being imparted. By the Holy Spirit, every believer has this privilege of internal, eternal connection with God Himself.

No matter how you feel in body or soul, your connection in the spirit remains. You live, not to connect with God, but from connection with God.

Your body belongs to God. (1 Corinthians 6:19, NLT)

Your Spirit is one with God. (1 Corinthians 6:17, NLT)

And, yes, even your soul is filled and owned by God. (Ephesians 1:14, AMP)

You are a Spirit, who has a soul, that exists in a body.

‘मातृ देवो भवः’, शास्त्रों में मिलता है मां की ममता और महिमा का बखान

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सनातन धर्म में मां का स्थान सबसे ऊपर है. क्योंकि हमारी संस्कृति में मां की तुलना ईश्वर से की गई है. यहां तक कि वेद-पुराणों में भी मां की ममता और महिमा का बखान किया गया है.

 

तैतरीय उपनिषद में लिखा गया है- ‘मातृ देवो भव:’ यानी मां देवताओं से भी बढ़कर होती है. मां जननी है, यानी जन्म देने वाली, जिसका स्थान संसार में सबसे ऊपर है. प्रेम, करुणा, भाव और वात्सल्य का दूसरा रूप यदि कोई है तो वह ‘मां’ ही है. मां का अपनी संतान के साथ खास लगाव होता है.

हम चाहे कितने भी बड़े क्यों न हो जाए, लेकिन जब भी हम किसी परेशानी में होते हैं या अकेला महसूस करते हैं तो आज भी ऐसा लगता है कि संसार के सभी सुखों का त्यागकर बस मां के आंचल से लिपट जाएं और फिर से बच्चा बन जाएं. क्योंकि मां का आंचल ही है जहां सबसे अधिक सुकून है और यह एक बच्चे के लिए दुनिया की सबसे सुरक्षित जगह है.

मेरी दुनिया है मां तेरे आंचल में

मां का आंचल बच्चे के लिए दुनिया के सब सुखों से बढ़कर है. इसलिए तो मां के आंचल की आड़ से जब नन्हे बच्चे देखते हैं तो उन्हें यह दुनिया रंगीन नजर आती है.

मां के आंचल का कोना हमारे लिए कभी गुल्लक बन जाया करता था तो कभी तिजोरी, जिसमें बंधे पैसे ऐसा खजाना होते थे, जिससे दुनिया की सारी खुशियां खरीदी जा सकती है.

बच्चे की खुशियों के लिए मां अपना आंचल भगवान के समक्ष फैलाती है. इसलिए तो मां का आंचल संतान के लिए कभी छोटा नहीं पड़ता. मां के आंचल, लाड़, प्यार, ममता और दुलार का जितना भी बखान किया जाए कम ही है. मां के आंचल और उसकी ममता का बखान केवल कविता और किताबों में ही नहीं बल्कि धार्मिक ग्रंथों में भी मिलता है.

रामचरितमानस के किष्किंधा कांड में एक प्रसंग है कि, जब माता सीता को रावण ने हरण कर लिया था तो उन्होंने अपने आभूषण साड़ी के आंचल में बांधकर ही फेंके थे, जिससे कि अगर किसी को रास्ते में आभूषण मिले तो उससे सीताजी के बारे में कुछ संकेत मिल सके.

अब आप ही बताइए रामायण में सीता जी के पल्लू में आभूषणों को बांधकर फेंकना और भगवान राम द्वारा उसका बखान करना क्या आंचल की कम महत्वपूर्णता को दर्शाता है.

इससे यह पता चलता है कि, ग्रंथ, काव्य और महाकाव्य सभी में ‘आंचल’ का कितना सुंदर चित्रण किया गया है. समय और परिवेश चाहे कितने भी क्यों न बदल जाएं लेकिन एक बच्चे के लिए उसकी मां का आंचल दुनिया का सबसे सुरक्षित स्थान है, जोकि संतान के लिए कभी छोटा नहीं पड़ता.

मां की ममता का कोई मोल नहीं है. मां के इसी पावन रिश्ते को दर्शाता है मदर्स डे या मातृत्व दिवस. मातृत्व प्रेम और माताओं के सम्मान में हर साल मई महीने के दूसरे रविवार को मदर्स डे के रूप में मनाया जाता है, जोकि इस साल 12 मई 2024 को है. हिंदू धर्म के वैदिक ग्रंथ, शास्त्र और वेद-पुराण में विशेषत: मां की महिमा और ममता की विस्तारपूर्वक वर्णन किया गया है.

मां को माता, आई, मम्मी, माई, महतारी, अम्मा, मातृ, अम्मी, जननी, जन्दात्री, जीवनदायिनी, जननी, धात्री, प्रसू जैसे अनेकों नामों से संबोधित किया जाता है.

विभिन्न संस्कृतियों में मां को पुकारने का तरीका भले ही अलग-अलग हो. लेकिन मां और संतान का रिश्ता हमेशा ममता और वात्सल्य से भरा होता है.

मां का प्यार, दुलार, ममता सब अतुलनीय है. इसलिए भगवान श्रीराम भी रामायण में अपने श्रीमुख से मां को स्वर्ग से भी ऊपर मानकर कहते हैं-जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी।

यानी- जननी (मां) और जन्मभूमि का स्थान स्वर्ग से भी ऊपर है.

आइये जानते हैं मां की महिमा और ममता को लेकर क्या कहते हैं वेद-पुराण

वैसे तो मां की ममता का शब्दों में बखान करना संभव नहीं है. क्योंकि मां ऐसा आलौकिक शब्द है, जिसके स्मरण मात्र से ही शरीर का रोम-रोम पुलकित हो जाता है और हृदय में भावनाओं के अनहद ज्वार उठने लगते हैं. केवल मां शब्द के उच्चारण मात्र से ही शरीर की पीड़ा खत्म हो जाती है, क्योंकि मां की धन्य धारा से ही तो समस्त सृष्टि का सृजन हुआ है.

महाभारत में यक्ष धर्मराज युधिष्ठर से पूछते हैं कि, भूमि से भी अधिक भारी क्या है. तब युधिष्ठिर कहते हैं- ‘मता गुरुतरा भूमेरू।’ यानी माता इस भूमि से भी अधिक भारी है.

महर्षि वेदव्यास मां का वर्णन करते हुए लिखते हैं-

नास्ति मातृसमा छाया, नास्ति मातृसमा गति:।

नास्ति मातृसमं त्राण, नास्ति मातृसमा प्रिया।।

यानी- मां के समान संसार में कोई छाया नहीं, मां के समान कोई सहारा नहीं. मां के समान रक्षक नहीं और मां के समान कोई प्रिय चीज भी नहीं है.

शतपथ ब्राह्मण की सूक्ति के अनुसार- अथ शिक्षा प्रवक्ष्याम: मातृमान् पितृमानाचार्यवान पुरुषो वेद:।अर्थ है- जब तीन उत्तम शिक्षक, एक मां दूसरा पिता और तीसरा आचार्य हो तभी मनुष्य ज्ञानवान हो सकता है.

रामायण की पांडूलिपियों में स्थान पर प्रभु श्रीराम लक्ष्मण से कहते हैं –

अपि स्वर्णमयी लङ्का न मे लक्ष्मण रोचते।
जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी॥

अर्थ- लक्ष्मण! भले ही यह लंका सोने से निर्मित हो, लेकिन फिर भी इसमें मेरी कोई रुचि नहीं. क्योंकि जननी (मां) और जन्मभूमि स्वर्ग से भी महान है.

मां के गुणों का उल्लेख कुछ प्रकार से भी मिलता है-

प्रशस्ता धार्मिकी विदुषी माता विद्यते यस्य स मातृमान।

यानी, वह माता धन्य है, जोकि गर्भावान से लेकर विद्या के पूर्ण होने तक सुशीलता से उपदेश करे.

आपदामापन्तीनां हितोऽप्यायाति हेतुताम्। 
मातृजङ्घा हि वत्सस्य स्तम्भीभवति बन्धने।।

यानी, जब परेशानी आने वाले होती है, तब हितकारी भी उसमें कारण बन जाता है. एक बछड़े को बांधने के लिए मां की जांघ ही खम्भे का कार्य करती है.

अकाल मृत्यु को भी टाल सकती है मां की दुआएं

हर मां अपनी संतान को दुआएं देती हैं. निश्चल भाव और हृदय से मां द्वारा दी गई दुआओं में इतनी शक्ति होती है कि, उससे अकाल मृत्यु तक टल सकती है.

मां के संस्कार, आशीष और दुआ से ही व्यक्ति सत्मार्ग पर चलता है और महानता के शिखर को छूता है. इसलिए वह जीवन नीरस है, जिसमें मां का आशीर्वाद और नारी चेतना का सानिध्य न हो.

 

A History of the Public Health System

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In Chapter 1, the committee found that the current public health system must play a critical role in handling major threats to the public health, but that this system is currently in disarray. Chapter 2 explained the committee’s ideal for the public health system—how it should be arranged for handling current and future threats to health. In this chapter the history of the existing public health system is briefly described. This history is intended to provide some perspective on how protection of citizens from health threats came to be a public responsibility and on how the public health system came to be in its current state.

History

During the past 150 years, two factors have shaped the modern public health system: first, the growth of scientific knowledge about sources and means of controlling disease; second, the growth of public acceptance of disease control as both a possibility and a public responsibility. In earlier centuries, when little was known about the causes of disease, society tended to regard illness with a degree of resignation, and few public actions were taken. As understanding of sources of contagion and means of controlling disease became more refined, more effective interventions against health threats were developed. Public organizations and agencies were formed to employ newly discovered interventions against health threats. As scientific knowledge grew, public authorities expanded to take on new tasks, including sanitation, immunization, regulation, health education, and personal health care. (Chave, 1984; Fee, 1987)

The link between science, the development of interventions, and organization of public authorities to employ interventions was increased public understanding of and social commitment to enhancing health. The growth of a public system for protecting health depended both on scientific discovery and social action. Understanding of disease made public measures to alleviate pain and suffering possible, and social values about the worthiness of this goal made public measures feasible. The history of the public health system is a history of bringing knowledge and values together in the public arena to shape an approach to health problems.

Before the Eighteenth Century

Throughout recorded history, epidemics such as the plague, cholera, and smallpox evoked sporadic public efforts to protect citizens in the face of a dread disease. Although epidemic disease was often considered a sign of poor moral and spiritual condition, to be mediated through prayer and piety, some public effort was made to contain the epidemic spread of specific disease through isolation of the ill and quarantine of travelers. In the late seventeenth century, several European cities appointed public authorities to adopt and enforce isolation and quarantine measures (and to report and record deaths from the plague). (Goudsblom, 1986)

The Eighteenth Century

By the eighteenth century, isolation of the ill and quarantine of the exposed became common measures for containing specified contagious diseases. Several American port cities adopted rules for trade quarantine and isolation of the sick. In 1701 Massachusetts passed laws for isolation of smallpox patients and for ship quarantine as needed. (After 1721, inoculation with material from smallpox scabs was also accepted as an effective means of containing this disease once the threat of an epidemic was declared.) By the end of the eighteenth century, several cities, including Boston, Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore, had established permanent councils to enforce quarantine and isolation rules. (Hanlon and Pickett, 1984) These eighteenth-century initiatives reflected new ideas about both the cause and meaning of disease. Diseases were seen less as natural effects of the human condition and more as potentially controllable through public action.

Also in the eighteenth century, cities began to establish voluntary general hospitals for the physically ill and public institutions for the care of the mentally ill. Finally, physically and mentally ill dependents were cared for by their neighbors in local communities. This practice was made official in England with the adoption of the 1601 Poor Law and continued in the American colonies. (Grob, 1966; Starr, 1982) By the eighteenth century, several communities had reached a size that demanded more formal arrangements for care of their ill than Poor Law practices. The first American voluntary hospitals were established in Philadelphia in 1752 and in New York in 1771. The first public mental hospital was established in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1773. (Turner, 1977)

The Nineteenth Century: The Great Sanitary Awakening

The nineteenth century marked a great advance in public health. “The great sanitary awakening” (Winslow, 1923)—the identification of filth as both a cause of disease and a vehicle of transmission and the ensuing embrace of cleanliness—was a central component of nineteenth-century social reforms. Sanitation changed the way society thought about health. Illness came to be seen as an indicator of poor social and environmental conditions, as well as poor moral and spiritual conditions. Cleanliness was embraced as a path both to physical and moral health. Cleanliness, piety, and isolation were seen to be compatible and mutually reinforcing measures to help the public resist disease. At the same time, mental institutions became oriented toward “moral treatment” and cure.

Sanitation also changed the way society thought about public responsibility for citizen’s health. Protecting health became a social responsibility. Disease control continued to focus on epidemics, but the manner of controlling turned from quarantine and isolation of the individual to cleaning up and improving the common environment. And disease control shifted from reacting to intermittent outbreaks to continuing measures for prevention. With sanitation, public health became a societal goal and protecting health became a public activity.

The Sanitary Problem

With increasing urbanization of the population in the nineteenth century, filthy environmental conditions became common in working class areas, and the spread of disease became rampant. In London, for example, smallpox, cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis reached unprecedented levels. It was estimated that as many as 1 person in 10 died of smallpox. More than half the working class died before their fifth birthday. Meanwhile, “In the summers of 1858 and 1859 the Thames stank so badly as to rise “to the height of an historic event … for months together the topic almost monopolized the public prints’.” (Winslow, 1923) London was not alone in this dilemma. In New York, as late as 1865, “the filth and garbage accumulate in the streets to the depth sometimes of two or three feet.” In a 2-week survey of tenements in the sixteenth ward of New York, inspectors found more than 1,200 cases of smallpox and more than 2,000 cases of typhus. (Winslow, 1923) In Massachusetts in 1850, deaths from tuberculosis were 300 per 100,000 population, and infant mortality was about 200 per 1,000 live births. (Hanlon and Pickett, 1984)Earlier measures of isolation and quarantine during specific disease outbreaks were clearly inadequate in an urban society. It was simply impossible to isolate crowded slum dwellers or quarantine citizens who could not afford to stop working. (Wohl, 1983) It also became clear that diseases were not just imported from other shores, but were internally generated. ”The belief that epidemic disease posed only occasional threats to an otherwise healthy social order was shaken by the industrial transformation of the nineteenth century.” (Fee, 1987) Industrialization, with its overburdened workforce and crowded dwellings, produced both a population more susceptible to disease and conditions in which disease was more easily transmitted. (Wohl, 1983) Urbanization, and the resulting concentration of filth, was considered in and of itself a cause of disease. “In the absence of specific etiological concepts, the social and physical conditions which accompanied urbanization were considered equally responsible for the impairment of vital bodily functions and premature death.” (Rosenkrantz, 1972)

At the same time, public responsibility for the health of the population became more acceptable and fiscally possible. In earlier centuries, disease was more readily identified as only the plight of the impoverished and immoral. The plague had been regarded as a disease of the poor; the wealthy could retreat to country estates and, in essence, quarantine themselves. In the urbanized nineteenth century, it became obvious that the wealthy could not escape contact with the poor. “Increasingly, it dawned upon the rich that they could not ignore the plight of the poor; the proximity of gold coast and slum was too close.” (Goudsblom, 1986) And the spread of contagious disease in these cities was not selective. Almost all families lost children to diphtheria, smallpox, or other infectious diseases. Because of the the deplorable social and environmental conditions and the constant threat of disease spread, diseases came to be considered an indicator of a societal problem as well as a personal problem. “Poverty and disease could no longer be treated simply as individual failings.” (Fee, 1987) This view included not only contagious disease, but mental illness as well. Insanity came to be viewed at least in part as a societal failing, caused by physical, moral, and social tensions.

The Development of Public Activities in Health

Edwin Chadwick, a London lawyer and secretary of the Poor Law Commission in 1838, is one of the most recognized names in the sanitary reform movement. Under Chadwick’s authority, the commission conducted studies of the life and health of the London working class in 1838 and that of the entire country in 1842. The report of these studies, General Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, “was a damning and fully documented indictment of the appalling conditions in which masses of the working people were compelled to live, and die, in the industrial towns and rural areas of the Kingdom.” (Chave, 1984) Chadwick documented that the average age at death for the gentry was 36 years; for the tradesmen, 22 years; and for the laborers, only 16 years. (Hanlon and Pickett, 1984) To remedy the situation, Chadwick proposed what came to be known as the “sanitary idea.” His remedy was based on the assumption that diseases are caused by foul air from the decomposition of waste. To remove disease, therefore, it was necessary to build a drainage network to remove sewage and waste. Further, Chadwick proposed that a national board of health, local boards in each district, and district medical officers be appointed to accomplish this goal. (Chave, 1984)Chadwick’s report was quite controversial, but eventually many of his suggestions were adopted in the Public Health Act of 1848. The report, which influenced later developments in public health in England and the United States, documented the extent of disease and suffering in the population, promoted sanitation and engineering as means of controlling disease, and laid the foundation for public infrastructure for combating and preventing contagious disease.

In the United States, similar studies were taking place. Inspired in part by Chadwick, local sanitary surveys were conducted in several cities. The most famous of these was a survey conducted by Lemuel Shattuck, a Massachusetts bookseller and statistician. His Report of the Massachusetts Sanitary Commission was published in 1850. Shattuck collected vital statistics on the Massachusetts population, documenting differences in morbidity and mortality rates in different localities. He attributed these differences to urbanization, specifically the foulness of the air created by decay of waste in areas of dense population, and to immoral life-style. He showed that the poor living conditions in the city threatened the entire community. “Even those persons who attempted to maintain clean and decent homes were foiled in their efforts to resist diseases if the behavior of others invited the visitation of epidemics.” (Rosenkrantz, 1972)Shattuck considered immorality an important influence on susceptibility to ill health—and in fact drunkenness and sloth did often lead to poor health in the slums—but he believed that these conditions were threatening to all. Further, Shattuck determined that those most likely to be affected by disease were also those who, either through ignorance or lack of concern, failed to take personal responsibility for cleanliness and sanitation of their area. (Rosenkrantz, 1972) Consequently, he argued that the city or the state had to take responsibility for the environment. Shattuck’s Report of the Massachusetts Sanitary Commission recommended, in its “Plan for a Sanitary Survey of the State,” a comprehensive public health system for the state.

The report recommended, among other things, new census schedules; regular surveys of local health conditions; supervision of water supplies and waste disposal; special studies on specific diseases, including tuberculosis and alcoholism; education of health providers in preventive medicine; local sanitary associations for collecting and distributing information; and the establishment of a state board of health and local boards of health to enforce sanitary regulations. (Winslow, 1923; Rosenkrantz, 1972)

Shattuck’s report was widely circulated after publication, but because of political upheaval at the time of release nothing was done. The report “fell flat from the printer’s hand.” In the years following the Civil War, however, the creation of special agencies became a more common method of handling societal problems. Massachusetts set up a state board of health in 1869. The creation of this board reflected more a trend of strengthened government than new knowledge about the causes and control of disease. Nevertheless, the type of data collected by Shattuck was used to justify the board. And the board relied on many of the recommendations of Shattuck’s report for shaping a public health system. (Rosenkrantz, 1972; Hanlon and Pickett, 1984) Although largely ignored at the time of its release, Shattuck’s report has come to be considered one of the most farsighted and influential documents in the history of the American public health system. Many of the principles and activities he proposed later came to be considered fundamental to public health. And Shattuck established the fundamental usefulness of keeping records and vital statistics.

Similarly, in New York, John Griscom published The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of New York in 1848. This report eventually led to the establishment of the first public agency for health, the New York City Health Department, in 1866. During this same period, boards of health were established in Louisiana, California, the District of Columbia, Virginia, Minnesota, Maryland, and Alabama. (Fee, 1987; Hanlon and Pickett, 1984) By the end of the nineteenth century, 40 states and several local areas had established health departments.

Although the specific mechanisms of diseases were still poorly understood, collective action against contagious disease proved to be successful. For example, cholera was known to be a waterborne disease, but the precise agent of infection was not known at this time. The sanitary reform movement brought more water to cities in the mid-nineteenth century, through private contractors and eventually through reservoirs and municipal water supplies, but its usefulness did not depend primarily on its purity for consumption, but its availability for washing and fire protection. (Blake, 1956) Nonetheless, sanitary efforts of the New York Board of Health in 1866, including inspections, immediate case reporting, complaint investigations, evacuations, and disinfection of possessions and living quarters, kept an outbreak of cholera to a small number of cases. “The mildness of the epidemic was no more a stroke of good fortune, observers agreed, but the result of careful planning and hard work by the new health board.” (Rosenberg, 1962) Cities without a public system for monitoring and combatting the disease fared far worse in the 1866 epidemic.

During this period, states also established more public institutions for care of the mentally ill. Dorothea Dix, a retired school teacher from Maine, is the most familiar name in the reform movement for care of the mentally ill. In the early nineteenth century, under Poor Law practices, communities that could not place their poor mentally ill citizens in more appropriate institutions put them in municipal jails and almshouses. Beginning in the middle of the century, Dix led a crusade to publicize the inhumane treatment mentally ill citizens were receiving in jails and campaigned for the establishment of more public institutions for care of the insane. In the nineteenth century, mental illness was considered a combination of inherited characteristics, medical problems, and social, intellectual, moral, and economic failures. It was believed, despite the prejudice that the poor and foreign-born were more likely to be mentally ill, that moral treatment in a humane social setting could cure mental illness. Dix and others argued that in the long run institutional care was cheaper for the community. The mentally ill could be treated and cured in an institution, making continuing public support unnecessary. Some 32 public institutions were established due to Dix’s efforts. Although the practice of moral treatment proved to be less successful than hoped, the nineteenth-century social reform movement established the principle of state responsibility for the indigent mentally ill. (Grob, 1966; Foley and Sharfstein, 1983)

New ideas about causes of disease and about social responsibility stimulated the development of public health agencies and institutions. As environmental and social causes of diseases were identified, social action appeared to be an effective way to control diseases. When health was no longer simply an individual responsibility, it became necessary to form public boards, agencies, and institutions to protect the health of citizens. Sanitary and social reform provided the basis for the formation of public health organizations.

Public health agencies and institutions started at the local and state levels in the United States. Federal activities in health were limited to the Marine Hospital Service, a system of public hospitals for the care of merchant seamen. Because merchant seamen had no local citizenship, the federal government took on the responsibility of providing their health care. A national board of health, which was intended to take over the responsibilities of the Marine Hospital Service, was adopted in 1879, but, opposed by the Marine Hospital Service and many southern states, the board lasted only until 1883 (Anderson, 1985) Meanwhile, several state boards of health, state health departments, and local health departments had been established by the latter part of the nineteenth century. (Hanlon and Pickett, 1984)

 

What are the Top 10 Biggest Health Issues Today?

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India has yet to overcome the issues of malnutrition and communicable diseases. Additionally, the country is witnessing the rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) also. Non-communicable diseases are those which are not caused by any infection but are caused due to changing lifestyles and environmental factors. In recent times, NCDs have greatly contributed to health loss not only in India but also globally. NCDs’ contribution to the overall disease burden has increased by more than 50% in India. Most of the NCDs are caused by preventable risk factors like tobacco use, hypertension, and ongoing nutrition transition.  This article speaks about the 10 biggest health issues we are facing today.

What are Health Issues?

India being the most populated country in the world, also has the highest number of patients suffering from chronic health issues. Medical issues happen when the body’s normal metabolism is affected by factors like lifestyle, diseases, pathogens or pollution. A majority of the critically ill patients are below 60 years old. Following are the factors that are contributing to these health issues in the young population:

  • Consumption of processed food
  • Excessive use of tobacco and alcohol
  • Sedentary lifestyle
  • Stress
  • Pollution
  • Expensive medical care

  • Top 10 Rising Health Problems in India

    Economic growth, rapid urbanisation, environmental factors and lack of physical activity are leading to a growing number of issues with health. Here is a list of the top 10 medical issues or health related issues:

    Obesity

    Obesity has become an epidemic in India. It is the excessive fat in the body. Visceral obesity is considered to be a serious health threat. Young kids as well as adults are equally struggling with physical issues like high BMI, body fat, etc. today. Reduced outdoor playtime, fattening junk food and sitting all day in the comfort of AC has made more than 30% of Indian kids obese.

    Cardiovascular Diseases

    Cardiovascular diseases are among the most common health problems and the top factor causing death in India. It includes diseases or conditions that affect your heart and blood vessels resulting in heart attacks. Blockage in arteries is the most common health issue causing cardiovascular diseases among the Indian population. Except for genetic heart defects, most heart conditions are preventable with a change in diet and lifestyle.

    Cancer

    It is the second most common disease in India and accounts for 70% of deaths in the age group of 30 to 69 years. The most common forms of cancer in India are oral, breast, lung, stomach and cervical which can be treated if diagnosed at an early stage and can also be prevented by maintaining a healthy lifestyle. However, late diagnosis affects the treatment outcomes, which is the major reason for cancer deaths.

    Chronic Respiratory Diseases

    High air pollution, smoking, use of biomass fuel and poor living conditions are major factors contributing to a rise in respiratory diseases such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), Pneumonia, and bronchitis. These diseases are major causes of death among children and elders.

    Diabetes

    India is known to have the highest cases of diabetes in the world. It is characterised by high blood sugar levels. It is the biggest health threat in India today which leads to many other medical problems like heart disease, chronic kidney disease, vision problems, etc. Diabetes is called the ‘silent killer’ due to the lack of symptoms in the early stages. Today, diabetes is a major health concern among children as young as 12 years due to poor lifestyle and unhealthy eating habits.

    Hypertension

    Hypertension or high blood pressure is one of the most common medical concerns in India. It is the leading factor causing a brain stroke and a heart attack. A stroke caused by high blood pressure can also lead to a disability or affect brain function. It is again caused by physical inactivity and unhealthy habits.

    Chronic Kidney Disease

    Chronic kidney disease is caused by many other underlying medical issues such as obesity, hypertension, diabetes, etc. It is a slow-progressing disease causing kidney failure over time. The symptoms include fatigue, swelling in ankles, loss of appetite and skin issues. These symptoms are not visible in the early stages.

    Reproductive Health Issues

    Reproductive health issues particularly faced by women are also on the rise. One in five women suffers from reproductive issues in India. Changing lifestyles, stressful work-life, pressure to maintain work-life balance and the dual responsibility of career and household on women have led to a rise in the cases of reproductive health issues such as hormonal imbalance, menstrual issues, PCOS, PCOD, and infertility.

  • Mental Health Issues

    Lately, the cases of mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, OCD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and substance abuse have increased significantly in India. Various social and cultural factors and a lack of access to mental healthcare lead to a rise in such cases. Addressing community health issues to promote community participation, bringing awareness and integration with primary healthcare can help reduce stigma and bridge the gap in accessibility.

    Community Health Problems

    Malnutrition, neonatal disorders, infectious diseases like diarrhoea, measles, tuberculosis, etc. and poor healthcare infrastructure are some common community health problems still prevalent in rural India and low-income groups. Various community health programs initiated by the government are addressing some common health issues, but there is still a long way to go.

    Managing Major Health Issues with Health Insurance

    All the major health issues discussed above are preventable, treatable and reversible with proper medical care. However, considering the high costs of treatments for lifestyle diseases, it is crucial to invest in comprehensive health insurance to manage a wide range of medical issues. A right health insurance policy can ease your financial burden when undergoing medical treatment.

    Did you know that Care Health Insurance plans provide coverage for all major critical illnesses, heart conditions, and pre-existing medical conditions? They also offer wellness benefits to help manage lifestyle diseases. Health insurance plans like Care Supreme, Care Super Mediclaim etc. come with comprehensive coverage that plays a major role in mitigating those unexpected expenses arising out of a medical emergency. Care Health Insurance has customised plans designed to meet your specific medical requirements and budget. You can consult our health insurance experts to learn more about our product offerings and coverage.

Operation Sindoor – Important takeaways

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The short conflict between India and Pakistan may be over for the present but the discussion it has started will go on for a long time. The Indian media, as expected, is going overboard with analysis and re-analysis of different aspects of the events that unfolded in the five days of active hostilities. The Western media has never been a fan of India or its achievements. It thrives on downplaying anything Indian in line with the philosophy of their parent countries. However, this time some of the more knowledgeable and expertise-driven among the foreign media, are discussing the Indian approach to this fight against terror objectively and lauding India’s achievements. 

At the cost of sounding pompous, today every Indian can be proud of our nation’s leadership, scientific fraternity, armed forces and various defense entities for their contribution in writing this success story that the world is taking note of. This, despite the fact that many nations, who are part of the developed world, would like to stem and stall the Indian growth story that is unfolding over the last one decade. The list includes those labelled as superpowers. A resurgent, rising, strong and ambitious India has never been a part of their vision of the world order. They would instead like to see a divided, staid, weak and vulnerable India that can be exploited and arm-twisted at will.  

The question that arises is, has India actually made the world sit up and take note of what it has done in these five days of conflict? A truthful answer to this question will be a big ‘Yes’. The key takeaways that reinforce this affirmation are:

Disproportionate response: The cross-border surgical strikes in 2016 and the Balakot air strikes in 2019 were symbolic and punitive in nature. This time, India escalated the matrix and went for a very decisive and calibrated response aimed at near annihilation of selected targets. The list included terror outfit strongholds and Pakistan’s airbases to cripple its Airforce. Pakistan’s air defence systems based on US and Chinese hardware were rendered ineffective. India’s own air defense shield effectively negated Pakistan’s missile and drone attacks. India had a near free run for all five days of the conflict.

Technology: The equipment and systems for this supremacy were largely homegrown and part of ‘Make in India’ initiative. The world has been taken by surprise at this very successful debut of Indian air defence, surveillance and guiding systems that use contemporary technology. More importantly, Indian missiles, drones and UAVs, including Brahmos, have established their mark to show that they are second to none. India’s technology has come of age and now offers another cost-effective alternative to potential buyers across the world. This may not sit well with major western nations who currently control the market. USA and China will be seriously concerned about the limitations and performance of their missiles, surveillance and air defense systems in Pakistan. 

Coordination & expertise: India showcased how its military, security and intelligence agencies can mount a successful and lethal attack deep in enemy territory with perfect coordination without actually setting foot in their territory or air space. The accuracy of the intelligence available and the precision of the strikes was unmatched. As per some experts, what has been show cased in last five days was only a part of the package, there is much more in the pipeline. 

Nuclear blackmail: India has successfully called out Pakistan’s oft repeated nuclear threat. India has clearly demonstrated that it will not hinder India’s disproportionate response in any manner. This, despite India continuing to be a signatory to the 1988 treaty with Pakistan, which came into force in 1991, that prohibits both parties from attacking each other’s nuclear assets. 

Indus water treaty: Logic defies how a sovereign India could sign such a one-sided treaty with Pakistan foregoing nearly all rights on the three rivers, Indus, Chenab and Jhelum that run through India before entering Pakistan. India has since corrected its mistake by suspending the treaty. India now controls the lifeline of Pakistan’s economy, agriculture and water needs. It should be an important strategic move for the future. 

Terror – an act of war: India has made it clear that henceforth any act of terror, perpetuated by Pakistan or outfits based in Pakistan, will be viewed as an act of war on India. In doing so, India has obliterated the line separating the state and non-state actors in this proxy war. 

Talks and terror: India has reiterated its stand that talks and terror will not go together. In fact, India has gone further to clarify that neither trade and terror nor water and blood will go together. If Pakistan wants to talk or trade or receive water, it must stop sponsoring and nurturing terrorists and terror groups in a meaningful manner. Finally, India has reiterated that it remains firm on no third-party mediation.

Pakistan – a confirmed terror state: The five-day conflict has established the credentials of Pakistan as a terror state beyond any doubt. Their Defence Minister and Mr Bilawal Bhutto, Chairman of the main opposition party (PPP), have admitted in international forums of their country’s sponsorship, support and use of terror groups for over three decades. On 14 May, 2025 Pakistan government announced a compensation of Rs 140 million to the globally declared terrorist Masood Azhar (JeM) for losses suffered in the Indian attack on their establishment in Bahawalpur. For the record, the first tranche of the IMF bailout to Pakistan was paid on 13 May, 2025. Obviously, this Rs 140 million will be paid out of that money.  Does the world need any more evidence to establish Pakistan’s stake and links with terror?

Absence of anti-India resolutions: Unlike in the past, where anti-India resolutions were passed by UN and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (57 member states) during such conflicts with Pakistan, this time there has been no such initiative. India has maintained that the current conflict was a war against terror and not Pakistan. Perhaps, this development points towards a newfound international status for India on one hand and an unmistakable branding of Pakistan as a terror state on the other. 

Leadership: Indian leadership at the highest level, both political and military, has sent a very clear message across the world – please do not mess with us. This is a new resurgent India that will not take any meddling in its affairs or threats to its security lightly. India has also emphatically stated that Operation Sindoor has only been suspended and not ceased. This is a very clear indication of India’s continued intent, resolve and commitment towards fighting terror.

The role of QUAD alliance too needs a discussion here. Australia and Japan were conspicuous by their absence while Operation Sindoor was unfolding. Perhaps, they were chary of antagonising China which was openly supporting Pakistan to safeguard its 62-billion-dollar investment in CPEC and BRI. USA showed no concerns for India and failed to condemn Pakistan where it continues to have stakes in different forms for various reasons. With China now well entrenched in Pakistan, perhaps USA neither wanted to upset China nor become irrelevant in Pakistan. In doing so, has USA compromised the QUAD itself which is primarily a front against Chinese hegemony in the region and distanced itself from India?

Next is the stance of BRICS, which is now a ten-nation alliance. Russia’s response was subdued and called for peace and harmony in the region. But India knows it can count on its support when needed. All was quiet on the Brazil and South Africa front, perhaps trade ties with China came to the fore. China left no doubt which side it was on. The other five nations are all Muslim nations (Egypt, UAE, Indonesia, Ethiopia and Iran). Their silence, signifying neutrality, can be understood and India would be satisfied with the same. USA would be happy if fissures develop among the five major BRICS nations as it will put the increasing Yuan (China) and Rupee (India) based trading in peril. That should help the dollar to retain its pole position in international trading. 

Operation Sindoor defines India’s new doctrine of deterrence in its fight against terror. It can be defined as, ‘A calibrated but decisive response against well-defined multiple targets within enemy territory that define the enemy’s core strengths; preferably from a standoff position within own airspace and territory at a pace and intensity dictated by India; exploiting technology, real time intelligence and surveillance as force multipliers; creating an environment where own weapon systems can be deployed to strike the enemy targets with impunity for maximum effect to achieve the objectives while neutralizing enemy’s strike capabilities at targets within own territory.’ A tall order but this is what India showcased in sharp contrast to what is happening in other parts of the world like Ukraine and Gaza.

भारत के सामाजिक-आर्थिक मुद्दे

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भारत विश्व का क्षेत्रफल अनुसार सातवाँ सबसे बड़ा और जनसंख्या अनुसार दूसरा सबसे बड़ा एक दक्षिण एशियाई राष्ट्र है। इसकी विकासशील अर्थव्यवस्था वर्तमान समय में विश्व की दस सबसे बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में से एक है। 1991 के बड़े आर्थिक सुधारों के पश्चात भारत सबसे तेजी से बढ़ती प्रमुख अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में से एक बन गया तथा इसे नव औद्योगीकृत देशों में से एक माना जाता है। आर्थिक सुधारों के पश्चात भी भारत के समक्ष अभी भी कई सामाजिक चुनौतियाँ है जिनमें से प्रमुख सामाजार्थिक मुद्दे हैं: गरीबी, भ्रष्टाचार, नक्सलवाद व आतंकवाद, कुपोषण और अपर्याप्त सार्वजनिक स्वास्थ्य सेवा।

भारत में सामाजार्थिक मुद्दों से सम्बन्धित आँकड़ों का अभिलेख भारत सरकार का सांख्यिकी और कार्यक्रम कार्यान्वयन मंत्रालय रखता है। 1999 में स्थापित इस मंत्रालय का राष्ट्रीय प्रतिदर्श सर्वेक्षण कार्यालय हर वर्ष सामाजार्थिक सर्वेक्षण करता है जो कि दौरों के रूप में किया जाता है। इस सर्वेक्षण में थोड़े बहुत क्षेत्रों को छोड़ कर सम्पूर्ण भारत को शामिल किया जाता है। जिन क्षेत्रों को इस सर्वेक्षण से बहार रखा जाता है उनमें सम्मिलित हैं नागालैंड के वे आंतरिक गाँव जो बस मार्ग से पाँच किलोमीटर से अधिक दूरी पर स्‍थित हैं व अण्डमान और निकोबार द्वीपसमूह के वे गाँव जो पूर्ण रूप से अगम्‍य हैं।[1

आर्थिक मुद्दे

गरीबी

भारत में गरीबी व्यापक है, देश में अनुमानतः विश्व के एक तिहाई गरीब निवास करते हैं। विश्व बैंक की 2010 में आई एक रिपोर्ट के अनुसार भारत की पूरी आबादी का 32.7% हिस्सा अन्तरराष्ट्रीय गरीबी रेखा $1.25 के नीचे जीवन व्यतीत करता है और 68.7% आबादी प्रतिदिन $2 से भी कम में अपना जीवन निर्वाह करती है।

भ्रष्टाचार

भारत में भ्रष्टाचार एक प्रमुख मुद्दा है और इससे देश की अर्थव्यवस्था पर प्रतिकूल प्रभाव पड़े हैं। ट्रांसपेरेंसी इंटरनेशनल द्वारा 2005 में कराए गए एक अध्ययन में पाया गया था कि सफलतापूर्वक सार्वजनिक कार्यालयों में अपना काम निकालने के लिए 62% से भी अधिक भारतीयों को प्रत्यक्ष रूप से रिश्वत देने या किसी तरह के प्रभाव का सहारा लेने का अनुभव था। 2008 में इसी तरह की रिपोर्ट में पाया गया कि 40% भारतीयों को सरकारी कार्यालयों में रिश्वत देने या किसी तरह के निजी सम्पर्क का सहारा लेने का अनुभव था।[2] 2012 में ट्रांसपेरेंसी इंटरनेशनल के भ्रष्टाचार सूचकांक में शामिल किए गए 176 देशों में से भारत विश्व का 94वां सबसे भ्रष्ट देश था।[3] ट्रांसपेरेंसी इंटरनेशनल के द्वारा जारी भ्रष्टाचार सूचकांक 2023 में भारत का रैंक शामिल किए गए 180 देश में 93 था जबकि 2022 में जारी किए गए सूचकांक में भारत का स्थान 85 था जो यह दर्शाता है कि भारत में निरंतर भ्रष्टाचार बढ़ रहा है।

हिंसा

नक्सलवाद व आतंकवाद

भारत बहुत समय से आतंकवाद का शिकार रहा है। गृह मंत्रालय के अनुसार आतंकवाद देश के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण खतरा बना हुआ है। भारत के कई राज्य आतंकवाद या नक्सलवाद से प्रभावित रहे हैं, इनमें प्रमुख रूप से शामिल हैं: जम्मू और कश्मीर, उड़ीसा, छत्तीसगढ़, झारखण्ड और उत्तर-पूर्व के सात बहन राज्य। 2012 में देश के 640 जिलों में से कम से कम 252 जिले विद्रोही और आतंकवादी गतिविधियों से विभिन्न स्तर पर पीड़ित थे।[4]

आर्थिक असमानता किसी व्यक्तियों के समूह, आबादी के समूहों या देशों के बीच, स्थित आर्थिक अंतर को दर्शाता है। आर्थिक असमानता कभी-कभी आय असमानता, धन असमानता, या धन अंतर को संदर्भित करती है। अर्थशास्त्री आम तौर पर आर्थिक असमानता के अध्ययन हेतु तीन मापीय प्रणाली पर ध्यान केंद्रित करते हैं: धन, आय और खपत।[1] आर्थिक असमानता का मुद्दा समानता के विचारों, परिणामों की समानता और अवसर की समानता के लिए प्रासंगिक है।[2]

आर्थिक असमानता समाज, ऐतिहासिक काल, आर्थिक संरचनाओं और प्रणालियों के बीच बदलती है। यह शब्द किसी भी विशेष अवधि में आय या धन के पार-अनुभागीय वितरण या लंबी अवधि के दौरान आय और धन के परिवर्तनों को संदर्भित कर सकता है।[3] आर्थिक असमानता को मापने के लिए विभिन्न संख्यात्मक सूचकांक हैं। एक व्यापक रूप से उपयोग सूचकांक गिनी गुणांक है, लेकिन कई अन्य विधियां भी हैं।

शोध से पता चलता है कि अधिक असमानता विकास की अवधि में बाधा डालती है लेकिन इसकी दर नहीं।[4][5] जबकि वैश्वीकरण ने वैश्विक असमानता (राष्ट्रों के बीच) को कम कर दिया है, इसने राष्ट्रों के भीतर असमानता में वृद्धि की है।[6]

Start a Daily Routine to Support Your Health & Wellbeing

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A routine is a sequence of actions regularly followed, or a fixed program. A little bit of daily structure, or routine, can help support your wellbeing in all its dimensions. Creating a wellness routine can make it easier to stay on track and keep your wellbeing at the forefront of your mind.

A wellness routine is a daily schedule that incorporates all of your healthy habits, such as your movement, sleep, meals, work/study/social life balance, and self-care activities. The best wellbeing routine will support you on the tough days and give you some extra energy and good feelings on the best days.

Then, mix and match ideas from the list below to create a wellbeing routine that fits your goals and lifestyle.

Start your day on the right foot

Stretch. Before you roll out of bed, try this stretch: Reach your arms above your head, stretch your legs out as straight as you can, and expand your rib cage with a deep inhale. As you exhale, relax. Give your wrists and ankles a roll, and then get out of bed.

Hydrate. Drink a glass of water as soon as you get up in the morning. This simple habit makes it easier to hit your hydration goals.

Meditate. Even just a few minutes of meditation each day can benefit your overall wellness, so this definitely deserves a spot in your routine. Try a guided meditation app — like Headspace — to help you calm your mind and body and feel more balanced.

Eat breakfast. When you head to the fridge in the morning, it can be tempting to grab the first, most convenient thing you see. Create a healthy breakfast with a balance of protein, healthy fat, and complex carbohydrates to keep you energized until lunch.

Grab your refillable water bottle. Not only will it help you meet your hydration goals, but using a refillable water bottle, thermos and/or coffee mug helps reduce the amount of waste generated by single use containers.

Beat the midday slump

Keep moving. Your workout shouldn’t be the only activity you get during the day. Take short movement breaks throughout the day: walk a few laps around the block, do a few squats at your desk, or take a stretch break wherever you are.

Don’t skip lunch. When your day gets hectic, it can be tempting to work right through lunch. Your body will feel better if you stop and eat a well-rounded meal.

Schedule in mini-breaks. Sure, you could work for 10 hours straight and get up only to use the bathroom. But is that truly what’s best for your mind and your body? When creating your afternoon wellness routine, build in short breaks throughout the day to increase productivity and creativity. Make a specific plan for how you’ll spend your downtime — one study found that engaging in physical activity or relaxation exercises during your break seems to offer a more effective energy boost than an unstructured break (or no break at all). And another study found that walking, in particular, has a positive effect on creative thinking.

Create an anxiety- or stress-reducing strategy. If you find yourself feeling anxious during the day, have a few tools on hand to help you manage your feelings. Check out the Headspace app for relaxation and calming techniques, as well as breathing exercises.

Take time to be social. Just like you need movement, water, and sleep, it is also important to support your social wellbeing. Take time to connect with other humans for conversation, laughs, support, and pleasure. It doesn’t have to be a huge effort — share a meal, make a phone call, or run an errand with a friend.v

Take care of yourself after a long day

Restore. When creating your personalized wellness routine, think about adding in some gentle or restorative movement at the end of the day — like foam rolling, stretching, or restorative yoga.

Power down. The blue light emitted by phone, computer, and TV screens can disrupt your sleep cycle. Your wind-down routine should be about preparing your mind and body for sleep, so schedule a time to shut down your devices for the night.

Practice gratitude. A gratitude practice is a great way to acknowledge your accomplishments from the day and refocus your mind. For example, you might make it a habit to write down three things you’re grateful for in a gratitude journal before you end your day.

Get a solid night’s sleep. When you don’t get enough zzz’s, it’ll be harder to accomplish the rest of your wellness goals — so make it a priority in your wellbeing routine.

American ideals

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Many American authors added American ideals to their work as a theme or other reoccurring idea, to get their point across.[40] There are many ideals that appear in American literature such as that all people are equal, the United States is the land of opportunity, independence is valued, the American Dream is attainable, and everyone can succeed with hard work and determination. John Winthrop also wrote about this term called American exceptionalism. This ideology refers to the idea that Americans are, as a nation, elect.[41]

 

 

 

 

Literary commentary

The American Dream has been credited with helping to build a cohesive American experience, but has also been blamed for inflated expectations.[43] Some commentators have noted that despite deep-seated belief in the egalitarian American Dream, the modern American wealth structure still perpetuates racial and class inequalities between generations.[44] One sociologist notes that advantage and disadvantage are not always connected to individual successes or failures, but often to prior position in a social group.[44]

Since the 1920s, numerous authors, such as Sinclair Lewis in his 1922 novel Babbitt, and F. Scott Fitzgerald, in his 1925 classic, The Great Gatsby, satirized or ridiculed materialism in the chase for the American dream. For example, Jay Gatsby’s death mirrors the American Dream’s demise, reflecting the pessimism of modern-day Americans.[45] The American Dream is a main theme in the book by John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men. The two friends George and Lennie dream of their own piece of land with a ranch, so they can “live off the fatta the lan'” and just enjoy a better life. The book later shows that not everyone can achieve the American Dream, although it is possible to achieve for a few. A lot of people follow the American Dream to achieve a greater chance of becoming rich. Some posit that the ease of achieving the American Dream changes with technological advances, availability of infrastructure and information, government regulations, state of the economy, and with the evolving cultural values of American demographics.

In 1949, Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman, in which the American Dream is a fruitless pursuit. Similarly, in 1971 Hunter S. Thompson depicted in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey Into the Heart of the American Dream a dark psychedelic reflection of the concept—successfully illustrated only in wasted pop-culture excess.[46]

The novel Requiem for a Dream by Hubert Selby Jr. is an exploration of the pursuit of American success as it turns delirious and lethal, told through the ensuing tailspin of its main characters. George Carlin famously wrote the joke “it’s called the American dream because you have to be asleep to believe it”.[47][48] Carlin pointed to “the big wealthy business interests that control things and make all the important decisions” as having a greater influence than an individual’s choice.[47] Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist and leftist activist Chris Hedges echoes this sentiment in his 2012 book Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt:[49]

The vaunted American dream, the idea that life will get better, that progress is inevitable if we obey the rules and work hard, that material prosperity is assured, has been replaced by a hard and bitter truth. The American dream, we now know, is a lie. We will all be sacrificed. The virus of corporate abuse—the perverted belief that only corporate profit matters—has spread to outsource our jobs, cut the budgets of our schools, close our libraries, and plague our communities with foreclosures and unemployment.

The American Dream, and the sometimes dark response to it, has been a long-standing theme in American film.[50] Many counterculture films of the 1960s and 1970s ridiculed the traditional quest for the American Dream. For example, Easy Rider (1969), directed by Dennis Hopper, shows the characters making a pilgrimage in search of “the true America” in terms of the hippie movement, drug use, and communal lifestyles.[51]

Political leaders

Scholars have explored the American Dream theme in the careers of numerous political leaders, including Henry Kissinger,[52] Hillary Clinton,[53] Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln.[54] The theme has been used for many local leaders as well, such as José Antonio Navarro, the Tejano leader (1795–1871), who served in the legislatures of Coahuila y Texas, the Republic of Texas, and the State of Texas.[55]

Political conflicts, to some degree, have been ameliorated by the shared values of all parties in the expectation that the American Dream will resolve many difficulties and conflicts.[59]

Public opinion

The ethos today implies an opportunity for Americans to achieve prosperity through hard work. According to the Dream, this includes the opportunity for one’s children to grow up and receive a good education and career without artificial barriers. It is the opportunity to make individual choices without the prior restrictions that limited people according to their class, caste, religion, race, or ethnicity. Immigrants to the United States sponsored ethnic newspapers in their own language; the editors typically promoted the American Dream.Lawrence Samuel argues:

For many in both the working class and the middle class, upward mobility has served as the heart and soul of the American Dream, the prospect of “betterment” and to “improve one’s lot” for oneself and one’s children much of what this country is all about. “Work hard, save a little, send the kids to college so they can do better than you did, and retire happily to a warmer climate” has been the script we have all been handed.

A key element of the American Dream is promoting opportunity for one’s children, Johnson interviewing parents says, “This was one of the most salient features of the interview data: parents—regardless of background—relied heavily on the American Dream to understand the possibilities for children, especially their own children”.[62] Rank et al. argue, “The hopes and optimism that Americans possess pertain not only to their own lives, but to their children’s lives as well. A fundamental aspect of the American Dream has always been the expectation that the next generation should do better than the previous generation.”[63]

Hanson and Zogby (2010) report on numerous public opinion polls that since the 1980s have explored the meaning of the concept for Americans, and their expectations for its future. In these polls, a majority of Americans consistently reported that for their family, the American Dream is more about spiritual happiness than material goods. Majorities state that working hard is the most important element for getting ahead. However, an increasing minority stated that hard work and determination does not guarantee success.[65]

In 2010, most Americans predicted that achieving the Dream with fair means would become increasingly difficult for future generations. They were increasingly pessimistic about the opportunity for the working class to get ahead; on the other hand, they were increasingly optimistic about the opportunities available to poor people and to new immigrants. Furthermore, most supported programs to make special efforts to help minorities get ahead.[65]

In a 2013 poll by YouGov, 41% of responders said it is impossible for most to achieve the American Dream, while 38% said it is still possible.[66] Most Americans perceive a college education as the ticket to the American Dream.[67] Some recent[when?] observers warn that soaring student loan debt crisis and shortages of good jobs may undermine this ticket.[68] The point was illustrated in The Fallen American Dream, a documentary film that details the concept of the American Dream from its historical origins to its current perception.[69] A 2020 poll found 54% of American adults thought the American Dream was attainable for them, 28% believed it was not, and 9% rejected the idea of the American Dream entirely. Younger generations were less likely to believe this than their older counterparts, and black and Asian Americans less likely than whites, Hispanics and Native Americans.[12]

Research published in 2013 shows that the U.S. provides, alongside the United Kingdom and Spain, the least economic mobility of any of 13 rich democratic countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[71][72] Prior research suggested that the United States shows roughly average levels of occupational upward mobility and shows lower rates of income mobility than comparable societies.[73][74]

Jo Blanden et al. report, “the idea of the U.S. as ‘the land of opportunity’ persists; and clearly seems misplaced.”[76] According to these studies, “by international standards, the United States has an unusually low level of intergenerational mobility: our parents’ income is highly predictive of our incomes as adults. Intergenerational mobility in the United States is lower than in France, Germany, Sweden, Canada, Finland, Norway and Denmark. Research in 2006 found that among high-income countries for which comparable estimates are available, only the United Kingdom had a lower rate of mobility than the United States.”[77] Economist Isabel Sawhill concluded that “this challenges the notion of America as the land of opportunity”.[78][79][80]Several public figures and commentators, from David Frum to Richard G. Wilkinson, have said that the American Dream is better realized in Denmark, which is ranked as having the highest social mobility in the OECD.[81][82][83][84][85] In the U.S., 50% of a father’s income position is inherited by his son. In contrast, the amount in Norway or Canada is less than 20%. Moreover, in the U.S. 8% of children raised in the bottom 20% of the climbed to the top 20% as adult, while the figure in Denmark is nearly double at 15%.[86][87][88] In 2015, economist Joseph Stiglitz stated, “Maybe we should be calling the American Dream the Scandinavian Dream.”[89]A 2023 paper written by academics at Bocconi University, the Rockwool Foundation, and Stockholm University found that “Intergenerational poverty in the U.S. is four times stronger than in Denmark and Germany, and twice as strong as in Australia and the UK,” and that an American child who grows up in poverty has “a 43 percentage point higher mean poverty exposure during early adulthood (relative to an adult with no child poverty exposure),” the highest of the five countries and exceeding the next highest by over 20 percentage points. The researchers found that “the persistence of poverty is strongly connected to tax rates and what they call transfer insurance effects, which can be considered as akin to a social safety net,” and that the “U.S. is the archetype of a liberal and residualist welfare state, featuring stratified access to higher education and employment, strong earnings returns to higher education, and a comparatively weak welfare state to insure against risks in adulthood,” as well as that “exposure to childhood poverty is particularly severe in the US.”[90]

A 2017 study stated that the UK, Canada, and Denmark all offered a greater chance of social mobility.[91] Black families were stated to be disadvantaged relative to white families when it comes to both upward mobility from the bottom and downward mobility from the top according to the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, with social mobility nationwide appearing to have declined since 1980.[92] Social mobility can also vary widely geographically according to a 2014 paper, with the Southeast and lower East North Central states ranking near the bottom.[93]

In the United States, home ownership is sometimes used as a proxy for achieving the promised prosperity; home ownership has been a status symbol separating the middle classes from the poor.[94]

Sometimes the American Dream is identified with success in sports or how working class immigrants seek to join the American way of life.[95]

According to a 2020 American Journal of Political Science study, Americans become less likely to believe in the attainability of the American dream as income inequality increases.[96] A 2022 study in the same journal found that exposure to “rags-to-riches” narratives in entertainment make Americans more likely to believe in upward mobility.[6]

According to a 2023 private opinion survey of American people by a Boston-based organization, Populace, the American Dream has shifted its narrative from fame and wealth to personal factors such as secure retirement, financial independence, parenthood and finding fulfillment in their work.[97]

Four American Dreams

Ownby (1999) identifies four American Dreams that the new consumer culture of the early 20th century addressed:

  • The “Dream of Abundance”, offering a cornucopia of material goods to all Americans, making them proud to be the richest society on earth.
  • The “Dream of a Democracy of Goods”, whereby everyone had access to the same products regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, or class, thereby challenging the aristocratic norms of the rest of the world where only the rich or well-connected were granted access to luxury.
  • The “Dream of Freedom of Choice”, with its ever-expanding variety of good allowed people to fashion their own particular lifestyle.
  • The “Dream of Novelty”, in which ever-changing fashions, new models, and unexpected new products broadened the consumer experience in terms of purchasing skills and awareness of the market, and challenged the conservatism of traditional society, culture, and politics.Ownby acknowledges that the American Dreams of the new consumer culture radiated out from the major cities, but notes that they quickly penetrated the most rural and most isolated areas, such as rural Mississippi. With the arrival of affordable automobiles such as the Ford Model T in the 1910s, consumers in rural America were no longer forced to only buy from local general stores with their limited merchandise and high prices, and could instead visit cheaper, better-stocked shops in towns and cities. Ownby demonstrates that poor black Mississippians shared in the new consumer culture, and it motivated the more ambitious to move to Memphis or Chicago.[98][99]

American Dream

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The “American Dream” is a phrase referring to a purported national ethos of the United States: that every person has the freedom and opportunity to succeed and attain a better life.[1] The phrase was popularized by James Truslow Adams during the Great Depression in 1931,[2] and has had different meanings over time. Originally, the emphasis was on democracy, liberty, and equality, but more recently has been on achieving material wealth and upward social mobility.[3]that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. […] It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position[4]

The tenets of the American Dream originate from the Declaration of Independence, which states that “all men are created equal“, and have an inalienable right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness“.[5] The Preamble to the Constitution states similarly that the Constitution’s purpose is to, in part, “secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity”.[a] It is said to be a set of ideals including representative democracy, rights, liberty, and equality, in which freedom is interpreted as the opportunity for individual prosperity and success, as well as the chance for upward social mobility for each according to ability and achievement through hard work in a capitalist society with many challenges but few formal barriers.[citation needed]

Evidence indicates that in recent decades social mobility in the United States has declined, and income inequality has risen.[6][7] Social mobility is lower in the US than in many European countries, especially the Nordic countries.[8][9] Despite this, many Americans are likely to believe they have a better chance of social mobility than Europeans do.[10] The US ranked 27th in the 2020 Global Social Mobility Index.[11] A 2020 poll found 54% of American adults thought the American Dream was attainable for them, while 28% thought it was not. Black and Asian Americans, and younger generations were less likely to believe this than whites, Hispanics, Native Americans and older generations.[12] Women are more skeptical of achieving the American Dream than men are.[13]

Belief in the American Dream is often inversely associated with rates of national disillusionment.[6] Some critics have said that the dominant culture in America focuses on materialism and consumerism, or puts blame on the individual for failing to achieve success.[14] Others have said that the labor movement is significant for delivering on the American Dream and building the middle class,[15][16] yet in 2024 only 10% of American workers were members of a labor union, down from 20% in 1983.[17] The American Dream has also been said to be tied to American exceptionalism,[18] and does not acknowledge the hardships many Americans have faced in regards to American slavery, Native American genocide, their legacies, and other examples of discriminatory violence.[19]

18th century

Historically, the Dream originated in colonial mystique regarding frontier life. As John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, the colonial Governor of Virginia, noted in 1774, the Americans “for ever imagine the Lands further off are still better than those upon which they are already settled”. He added that, “if they attained Paradise, they would move on if they heard of a better place farther west”.[20] The idea of the American Dream is ever evolving and changing. When the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776, the founding fathers believed that this would ratify the role of government and society in the United States. Jim Cullen claims:

Ever since, the Declaration of Independence has functioned as the banner of the American Dream, one repeatedly waved by figures that included women’s rights activists, populists, homosexuals, and anyone who has ever believed that happiness can not only be pursued, but attained. The U.S. Constitution, which marked the other bookend of the nation’s creation, lacks the mythic resonances of the Declaration, though it takes little reflection to see that it is the backdrop, if not the foundation, for all American Dreams. Whatever their disagreements about its scope or character, most Americans would agree that their national government is legitimate insofar as it permits a level playing field of dreams. Many of us have doubts that the government does serve this function; few have doubts that it should.[21]

19th century

Many well-educated Germans who fled the failed 1848 revolution found the United States more politically free than their homeland, which they believed to be a hierarchical and aristocratic society that determined the ceiling for their aspirations. One of them said:

The German emigrant comes into a country free from the despotism, privileged orders and monopolies, intolerable taxes, and constraints in matters of belief and conscience. Everyone can travel and settle wherever he pleases. No passport is demanded, no police mingles in his affairs or hinders his movements … Fidelity and merit are the only sources of honor here. The rich stand on the same footing as the poor; the scholar is not a mug above the most humble mechanics; no German ought to be ashamed to pursue any occupation … [In America] wealth and possession of real estate confer not the least political right on its owner above what the poorest citizen has. Nor are there nobility, privileged orders, or standing armies to weaken the physical and moral power of the people, nor are there swarms of public functionaries to devour in idleness credit for. Above all, there are no princes and corrupt courts representing the so-called divine ‘right of birth’. In such a country the talents, energy and perseverance of a person … have far greater opportunity to display than in monarchies.[22]

The discovery of gold in California in 1849 brought in a hundred thousand men looking for their fortune overnight—and a few did find it. Thus was born the California Dream of instant success. Historian H. W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation:

The old American Dream … was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin’s “Poor Richard”… of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck. [This] golden dream … became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter’s Mill.[23]

The 18th century provided Americans with new sources of wealth and new means of travel. When looking at immigration in history, it is important to consider the different experiences due to gender as much as due to race. Often, tensions between economic and political agendas come into play. After 1776, the United States became a significant part of the global economy. This paragraph highlights the complex relationships between global integration and American history:

Historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 advanced the frontier thesis, under which American democracy and the American Dream were formed by the American frontier. He stressed the process—the moving frontier line—and the impact it had on pioneers going through the process. He also stressed results; especially that American democracy was the primary result, along with egalitarianism, a lack of interest in high culture, and violence. “American democracy was born of no theorist’s dream; it was not carried in the Susan Constant to Virginia, nor in the Mayflower to Plymouth. It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time it touched a new frontier,” said Turner.[25]

complicated transnational networks themselves are not the only story. Along with global integration went attempts to assert national distinctiveness amid growing global competition. Americans conceived of and responded to these pressures by striving to create national economic independence because they wanted to maintain political and social independence. Thus there was tension between the economic imperatives of global integration, and national political debates and economic agendas – such as the enhancement of national security through a strong industrial and financial base.[24]

In Turner’s thesis, the American frontier established liberty by releasing Americans from European mindsets and eroding old, dysfunctional customs. The frontier had no need for standing armies, established churches, aristocrats or nobles, nor for landed gentry who controlled most of the land and charged heavy rents. Frontier land was free for the taking. Turner first announced his thesis in a paper entitled “The Significance of the Frontier in American History“, delivered to the American Historical Association in 1893 in Chicago. He won wide acclaim among historians and intellectuals. Turner elaborated on the theme in his advanced history lectures and in a series of essays published over the next 25 years, published along with his initial paper as The Frontier in American History.[26] Turner’s emphasis on the importance of the frontier in shaping American character influenced the interpretation found in thousands of scholarly histories. By the time Turner died in 1932, 60% of the leading history departments in the U.S. were teaching courses in frontier history along Turnerian lines.[27]

 

Culture of the United States

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The culture of the United States encompasses various social behaviors, institutions, and norms, including forms of speech, literature, music, visual arts, performing arts, food, sports, religion, law, technology, as well as other customs, beliefs, and forms of knowledge. American culture has been shaped by the history of the United States, its geography, and various internal and external forces and migrations.[1]

America’s foundations were initially Western-based, and primarily English-influenced, but also with prominent French, German, Greek, Irish, Italian, Scottish, Welsh, Jewish, Polish, Scandinavian, and Spanish regional influences. However, non-Western influences, including African and Indigenous cultures, and more recently, Asian cultures, have firmly established themselves in the fabric of American culture as well. Since the United States was established in 1776, its culture has been influenced by successive waves of immigrants, and the resulting “melting pot” of cultures has been a distinguishing feature of its society. Americans pioneered or made great strides in musical genres such as heavy metal, rhythm and blues, jazz, gospel, country, hip hop, and rock ‘n’ roll. The “big four sports” are American football, baseball, basketball, and ice hockey. In terms of religion, the majority of Americans are Protestant or Catholic. The irreligious element is growing. American cuisine includes popular tastes such as hot dogs, milkshakes, and barbecue, as well as many other class and regional preferences. The most commonly used language is English, and English was made the official language of the United States on March 1, 2025, although the United States did not have an official language for most of its history.[2] Distinct cultural regions include New England, Mid-Atlantic, the South, Midwest, Southwest, Mountain West, and Pacific Northwest.[3]

Politically, the country takes its values from the American Revolution and American Enlightenment, with an emphasis on liberty, individualism, and limited government, as well as the Bill of Rights and Reconstruction Amendments. Under the First Amendment, the United States has the strongest protections of free speech of any country.[4][5][6][7] American popular opinion is also the most supportive of free expression and the right to use the Internet.[8][9] The large majority of the United States has a legal system that is based upon English common law.[10] According to the Inglehart–Welzel cultural map, it leans greatly towards “self-expression values“, while also uniquely blending aspects of “secular-rational” (with a strong emphasis on human rights, the individual, and anti-authoritarianism) and “traditional” (with high fertility rates, religiosity, and patriotism) values together.[11][12][13] Its culture can vary by factors such as region, race and ethnicity, age, religion, socio-economic status, or population density, among others. Different aspects of American culture can be thought of as low culture or high culture, or belonging to any of a variety of subcultures. The United States exerts major cultural influence on a global scale and is considered a cultural superpower.[14][15]

Languages

More than 300 languages nationwide, and up to 800 languages in New York City, besides English, have native speakers in the United States—some are spoken by indigenous peoples (about 150 living languages) and others imported by immigrants. English is not the first language of most immigrants in the US, though many do arrive knowing how to speak it, especially from countries where English is broadly used.[32] This not only includes immigrants from countries such as Canada, Jamaica, and the UK, where English is the primary language, but also countries where English is an official language, such as India, Nigeria, and the Philippines.[32]

According to the 2000 census, there were nearly 30 million native speakers of Spanish in the United States. Spanish has official status in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, where it is the primary language spoken, and the state of New Mexico; numerous Spanish enclaves exist around the country as well.[33]

Customs and traditions

Iconic American dishes such as apple pie, donuts, fried chicken, American pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants and domestic innovations.[35][36] French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are consumed.[37]

The types of food served at home vary greatly and depend upon the region of the country and the family’s own cultural heritage. Recent immigrants tend to eat food similar to that of their country of origin, and Americanized versions of these cultural foods, such as Chinese American cuisine or Italian American cuisine often eventually appear. Vietnamese cuisine, Korean cuisine, and Thai cuisine in authentic forms are often readily available in large cities. German cuisine has a profound impact on American cuisine, especially Midwestern cuisine; potatoes, noodles, roasts, stews, cakes, and other pastries are the most iconic ingredients in both cuisines.[38] Dishes such as the hamburger, pot roast, baked ham, and hot dogs are examples of American dishes derived from German cuisine.[39][40]

Americans generally prefer coffee over tea, and more than half the adult population drinks at least one cup of coffee per day.[41] Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk (now often fat-reduced) ubiquitous breakfast beverages.[42] During the 1980s and 1990s, the caloric intake of Americans rose by 24%;[37] and frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with what health officials call the American “obesity epidemic“. Highly sweetened soft drinks are popular; sugared beverages account for 9% of the average American’s daily caloric intake.[43]

The American fast food industry, the world’s first and largest, is also often viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance. Companies such as McDonald’s,[44] Burger King, Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Domino’s Pizza among others, have numerous outlets around the world,[45] and pioneered the drive-through format in the 1940s.[46]

Sports

In the 1800s, colleges were encouraged to focus on intramural sports, particularly track and field, and, in the late 1800s, American football. Physical education was incorporated into primary school curriculums in the 20th century.[48]

Baseball is the oldest of the major American team sports. Professional baseball dates from 1869 and had no close rivals in popularity until the 1960s. Though baseball is no longer the most popular sport,[49] it is still referred to as “the national pastime“.

Ice hockey is the fourth-leading professional team sport. Always a mainstay of Great Lakes and New England-area culture, the sport gained tenuous footholds in regions like the American South since the early 1990s, as the National Hockey League pursued a policy of expansion.[50]

Soccer is very popular as a participation sport, particularly among youth, and the US national teams are competitive internationally. A twenty-six-team (with four more confirmed to be added within the next few years) professional league, Major League Soccer, plays from March to October, but its television audience and overall popularity lag behind other American professional sports.[51]

Soccer is very popular as a participation sport, particularly among youth, and the US national teams are competitive internationally. A twenty-six-team (with four more confirmed to be added within the next few years) professional league, Major League Soccer, plays from March to October, but its television audience and overall popularity lag behind other American professional sports.[51]

Namesv

Creativity has also long been a part of American naming traditions and names have been used to express personality, cultural identity, and values.[59][60] Naming trends vary by race, geographic area, and socioeconomic status. African Americans, for instance, have developed a very distinct naming culture.[60] Both religious names and those inspired by popular culture are common.[61]

Fashion and dress

Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the 1850s by merchant Levi Strauss, a German-Jewish immigrant in San Francisco, and adopted by many American teenagers a century later. They are worn in every state by people of all ages and social classes. Along with mass-marketed informal wear in general, blue jeans are arguably one of US culture’s primary contributions to global fashion.[62]

Marriage and divorce

State law provides for child support where children are involved, and sometimes for alimony. “Married adults now divorce two-and-a-half times as often as adults did 20 years ago and four times as often as they did 50 years ago… between 40% and 60% of new marriages will eventually end in divorce. The probability within… the first five years is 20%, and the probability of its ending within the first 10 years is 33%… Perhaps 25% of children (ages 16 and under) live with a stepparent.”[70]

History

Origins, development, and spread

The European roots of the United States originate with the English and Spanish settlers of colonial North America during British and Spanish rule. The varieties of English people, as opposed to the other peoples on the British Isles, were the overwhelming majority ethnic group in the 17th century (the population of the colonies in 1700 was 250,000) and were 47.9% of percent of the total population of 3.9 million. They constituted 60% of the whites at the first census in 1790 (%: 3.5 Welsh, 8.5 Scotch Irish, 4.3 Scots, 4.7 Irish, 7.2 German, 2.7 Dutch, 1.7 French, and 2 Swedish).[16] The English ethnic group contributed to the major cultural and social mindset and attitudes that evolved into the American character. Of the total population in each colony, they numbered from 30% in Pennsylvania to 85% in Massachusetts.[17] Large non-English immigrant populations from the 1720s to 1775, such as the Germans (100,000 or more), Scotch Irish (250,000), added enriched and modified the English cultural substrate.[18]

Jeffersonian democracy was a foundational American cultural innovation, which is still a core part of the country’s identity.[19] Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia was perhaps the first influential domestic cultural critique by an American and was written in reaction to the views of some influential Europeans that America’s native flora and fauna (including humans) were degenerate.[19]

Non-indigenous cultural influences have been brought by historical immigration, especially from Germany in much of the country,[20] Ireland and Italy in the Northeast, and Japan in Hawaii. Latin American culture is especially pronounced in former Spanish areas but has also been introduced by immigration, as have Asian American cultures (especially in the Northeast and West Coast regions). Caribbean culture has been increasingly introduced by immigration and is pronounced in many urban areas. Since the abolition of slavery, the Caribbean has been the source of the earliest and largest Black immigrant group, a significant source of growth of the Black population in the U.S. and has made major cultural impacts in education, music, sports and entertainment.[21]

Indigenous cultures remains strong in both reservation and urban communities, including traditional government and communal organization of property now legally managed by Indian reservations (large reservations are mostly in the West, especially Oklahoma, Arizona and South Dakota). The fate of indigenous cultures after contact with Europeans is quite varied. For example, Taíno culture in U.S. Caribbean territories is undergoing cultural revitalization and, like many Native American languages, the Taíno language is no longer spoken. By contrast, the Hawaiian language and culture of the Native Hawaiians has survived in Hawaii alongside that of immigrants from the mainland U.S. (starting before the 1898 annexation) and to some degree Asian immigrants. Indigenous Hawaiian influences on mainstream American culture include surfing and Hawaiian shirts. Most languages native to what is now U.S. territory are endangered.[22]

American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements. Despite certain consistent ideological principles (e.g. individualism, egalitarianism, and faith in freedom and republicanism), American culture has a variety of expressions due to its geographical scale and demographics.[23]

As a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, the U.S. has been shaped by the world’s largest immigrant population. The country is home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values,[24][25] and exerts major cultural influence on a global scale, with the phenomenon being termed Americanization.[26][27][14][15]